The CWC and Syria

“If you take the biological weapons in the United States we still will have perhaps a single individual who was able to make anthrax, dry it, and spread it through the mail and cause terror.” Hans Blix was undeniably right when he made this statement in regards to chemical warfare. If one is able to make a substance such as anthrax by himself in his home, a person definitely has the potential to make a chemical weapon at home. Take the Boston Marathon Bombings in April of this year for example. The Tsarnaevs used pressure cooker bombs, which are pressure cookers with explosive material inside of them that are set to go off after a certain amount of time that they made by themselves. The argument is that having a treaty would stop this chemical warfare, but would that treaty be effective? Treaties are imperative for human welfare because they make wars less violent and less frequent, and they bring peace in harmful situations such as chemical, biological, and nuclear warfare. The Chemical Weapons Convention, CWC for short, is an organization that wants to abolish all of the weapons of mass destruction by putting a ban on the development, production, stockpiling, and use of these weapons by States Parties. That being said, many believe that cooperation between Syria and the CWC would have stopped the killing of 1,400 citizens of Syria using sarin on August 21st, but I personally believe that Syria would have carried out this lethal act whether they were a part of the CWC or not because they had the motivation, supplies, and the connections to do so.

Photo by: FreedomHouse 

The foremost reason that a treaty would not have stopped the attack is that Syrian government had the motivation to kill all of those innocent children and adults. Everyone knows that all of this chaos started with the rebellions in Egypt and Tunisia, which evoked the civilians of Syria to protest against how Assad was running the country. This brought government into it and shots were fired into the crowds of protesters, marking the beginning of the civil war of Syria. Even with all of the shots fired, the civilians did not give up. Actually, they began to protest again, but this time against the violence of the government. Obviously, the government did not like this at all, and in return thus began to demolish neighborhoods and even entire towns. More recently, they have begun to use chemical weapons on the citizens of their country, like they did in August. High tensions and pure hatred for each other definitely motivate the Syrian government to attack, although that does not justify it or mean that it was the right thing to do. A treaty would not have stopped the government from doing all of these hateful things to their civilians because they were too enraged to think of what they were doing to their country, and by that point nothing could have stopped them.

Photo by: NordNordWest

Another reason as to why a treaty would not have stopped Syria from using chemical weapons on their citizens is because they had the supplies to do it. If someone went against your authority with a protest and publicly humiliated you, would you be furious? If you had chemical weapons just sitting in your closet would you use them on that person or those people that contradicted you? Personally, I would probably not resolve to use an actual chemical weapon on the people, but there are many people who ould be angry enough to do that. As stated in the beginning of this post, chemical weapons are not difficult to make at home. Indubitably, the government of a country would have the supplies to do this, especially since the government reigns the country and has access to everywhere that these supplies are. The treaty might would ban the use of these chemical weapons, but that would not stop them. The ban on alcohol in the 1920’s did not stop people from drinking, marijuana is illegal in the US but people still smoke it, and it is illegal to murder people but people are still murdered everyday. Therefore, a treaty would not stop Syria from gassing their citizens.

Last but certainly not least, Syria had the connections with other countries to carry out this plan and to get away with it. Russia has been a strong ally of Syria for a very long time, which means that Russia will protect Syria in what its government decides to do. For example, the United States has presented evidence to Russia that Syria used chemical weapons on the people of their country, but Vladimir Putin, the president of Russia, rejected it saying, “While the Syrian army is on the offensive, saying that it is the Syrian government that used chemical weapons is utter nonsense.” The strong ties between Syria and Russia make it extremely hard to call Syria out and take action on the issue, making a treaty completely ineffective.

Photo By: محمد السعيد

All in all, a treaty would not help in controlling Syria or stopping them from using chemical weapons on their citizens. Treaties are supposed to help control war, making it less violent and last a shorter amount of time, but nothing could have stopped Syria, who already had their mind set on controlling their people. The protests in Syria enraged the government officials, and hence the civil war started. No treaty could diminish the motivation, supplies, and the strong ties with Russia that Syria had.

Works Cited

Byrne, Dennis. "Why We Should All Care about Chemical Warfare." Chicago Tribune. N.p., 17 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

Heineman, Ben W., Jr. "Why Chemical Weapons Are Different." The Atlantic. N.p., 9 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

Liebelson, Dana. "Are Chemical Weapons Reason Enough to Go to War?" Mother Jones. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

The Editorial Board. "Editorials." The Sacramento Bee. N.p., 8 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

"The Power of Treaties." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 3 Sept. 2013. Web. 18 Sept. 2013.

The Reason Behind Sandy Hook

Adam Lanza was a lonely boy: intelligent, yet extremely shy. On December 14th of last year, his profile changed into a monstrous serial killer, something that no one could explain. On the day of the shooting, Lanza killed his mother before going to Sandy Hook Elementary in Newtown, Connecticut with his weapons. In less than five minutes, he killed 20 children, 6 faculty members, and himself. Struggling to find a sufficient explanation for this tragedy, scientists have turned to analyzing Lanza’s DNA in hopes of finding an answer. Although the researchers did not reveal many details regarding their study, the analysis has appeared shallow and hesitant. A thorough background check done after the shooting revealed Lanza’s troubled childhood and antisocial behavior. This supports historical evidence that a “serial killer gene” does not exist, despite links between DNA and certain behavioral traits. Behavioral patterns and genetics are too complex for identifying future criminals solely through DNA; thus, such research should only supplement complete studies regarding the criminal’s upbringing. 

Photo by torbakhopper

Over the years, there have been a number of studies that correlate certain genetic variations to criminality, such as the MAOA “warrior gene.” The MAOA gene variation, which was found to be highly heritable, naturally predisposes its carriers towards aggression (NPR). Another such study revealed that victims of the XYY syndrome, a disorder that results from an extra ‘Y’ sex chromosome, are much more likely to be violent and behaviorally troubled (Kraus). Even so, it is obvious that not all carriers of the MAOA gene or XYY karyotype will commit crimes of violence, and there are many obvious detriments in attempting to screen for such genes. Firstly, data results in research are based primarily on group averages which, when applied to individuals, will result in unwanted false positives and negatives. This alone would render the tests unreliable. Second, discrimination based on biological characteristics has been historically controversial, creating understandable concerns of stigmatization. More importantly, labeling someone as a potential criminal will have devastating psychological effects both on that person and those who interact with him. As you can see, even though these studies have associated genetic traits to criminal behavior, any kind of testing proves to be costly and ineffective. The discovery of these genetic factors has only proven the limited application of DNA research.

It is dangerous to oversimplify the complexity of behavior. There are way too many factors outside of genetics that form a person’s individual behavior, including childhood growth and environment. Genes like MAOA alone do not cause criminal activity, but they can create vulnerability in someone who has already had a rough childhood. Almost every psychopath or serial killer suffered physical or emotional abuse as a young child. Adam Lanza was bullied and ridiculed by his peers. Even then, no one knew that he would commit an act as horrific as the Sandy Hook shooting. There are some children that are very sensitive to maltreatment and others that are not. Additionally, brain structures can be altered by environmental factors (Smith). As you probably know, the brain is the central system for rationalization and decision making. Its shape and function can change based on different experiences, body chemistry, and natural growth. The presence of all these environmental factors makes it extremely difficult to attribute behavior to just one element.

Photo by Stew Dean

Even within genetics, there are countless numbers of intertwining elements that impact each other. Marinus Van Ijzendoorn, a researcher from Leiden University in the Netherlands, gathered a sample of about 160 children, all marked as at risk for natural aggression and disobedient behavior. He swabbed the inside of the children’s cheeks and analyzed the cells to see who had a variation of DRD4, a gene that regulates the amount of dopamine in the body. The purpose of this experiment was to see if this particular gene variation had a significant effect on how the children would respond to therapy. Half of the parents in the study were given lessons on how to be warmer while setting limits more strictly, but the other half of the parents did not receive this training. The mothers were also required to answer questionnaires in order to assess the severity of their children’s behaviors of aggression. After the investigation, the study reported “clear-cut evidence” that the children with the gene variation were “more open to the changes in their parents’ behavior,” according to the head researcher. Additionally, the children who showed the most aggressive behavior before the counseling displayed the least disobedient behaviors after the training (Smith). This study proves the danger of studying genetic components in isolation. Even though the children were predisposed to aggressive behavior, another factor was found to almost counteract the inherent trait.

Perhaps if Lanza’s behavior had been observed more closely, Sandy Hook might not have been a victim. Technology has given us a lot of power to do what we want, placing a lot of responsibility on our hands. DNA sequencing might be a neat tool for analyzing criminals, but it is over ambitious in what it attempts to accomplish. Due to the many obstacles and challenges this kind of research faces, it is unnecessary to utilize it without first obtaining thorough evidence and background research. No one is destined to be a criminal.

Works Cited

Kraus, R. T. (1995). “An Enigmatic Personality: Case Report of a Serial Killer.” Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine.

NPR. (06 July, 2010). “Can Genes and Brain Abnormalities Create Killers?” NPR science news.

Unknown. (2008). “Serial Killers: Nature vs. Nuture.” National Center for Crisis Management, article 213.

Smith, Julia Llewellyn. (10 April 2013). "Studying Adam Lanza: is evil in our genes?" The Telegraph.

Wagner, D. (27 December, 2012). “The Trouble with Adam Lanza’s DNA.” The Atlantic Wire,
technology.

The Hypothalamus' Role in Living

The hypothalamus is a brain structure critical for a healthy, long life in animals and humans. It controls vital bodily functions such as metabolic control, endocrine input, and many Peripheral Nervous System responses. A recent Nature research article contained experiment results showing the ability of the hypothalamus to prevent neural aging. The hypothalamus is vital for human life; however, manipulating metabolic and homeostatic processes is more important than maintaining neurons.

Human metabolism is controlled by released hormones throughout the body that regulate what the body desires, how it should process certain materials, and various other methods of maintaining homeostasis in the body. The hypothalamus receives input via the Peripheral Nervous System and allows the hypothalamus to know what environment and situation the body is in. After receiving input, the hypothalamus responds with output from the endocrine system. The endocrine system is responsible for the hormone release and absorption in the body through various glands. The hormones released act as messengers to specific parts systems in the body, just as the nervous system does; however, hormones take longer to enact the desired result. Hormones control important parts of homeostasis, such as body temperature. The stability of such aspects of the human body is vital for continued bodily functions and for life. (Bailey, Regina)

In the study from the Nature article, the experiments conducted show the affects the hypothalamus has on preserving neurological cell life. Through blocking certain receptors on the hypothalamus, certain neurological pathways are stimulated or retarded, affecting the neurons efficiency and therefore also affecting brain processes. The hypothalamus maintains these pathways by sending out chemicals that cause microglia, macrophages of the brain and central nervous system, to destroy damaged nerve cells. The results of another experiment show the microglia aid in the remyelination of damaged nerve cells through oligodendrocyte differentiation. Oligodendrocytes provide the myelin sheath, a covering on neurons that increases the speed at which electrical impulses are sent, for multiple axons (Miron, V.E.) In helping with nerve cell development, the myelin sheaths on the nerve cells are repaired and the nerves function more ideally. The microglia are directed to either destroy or attempt to repair the cells at the command of the hypothalamus. These factors slow down the effects of aging of the nervous system that result in nervous system disorders later in life. (Cai, D)

When the hypothalamus fails to functionally control the hypothalamus efficiently, the body can experience a wide range of symptoms from depression to excess thirst. In instances of hypothyroidism, which can be caused by malfunctions in the hypothalamus’ ability to control the thyroid effectively, the effects can be mental slowing, fatigue, unbalanced levels of androgens and estrogens, and weight gain. These symptoms are a serious risk for the health of any individual suffering from hypothyroidism because the human body becomes unstable metabolically. Hypothyroidism is only one of many things that can result from hypothalamus failure to control homeostasis. (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/)

When neurons in the brain and Central Nervous System degrade, there is the potential for Alzheimer’s, ALS, Parkinson’s, and other nervous system disorders to surface. These diseases are eventually lethal with there being little that can be done for the inflicted, especially in cases of Alzheimer’s and ALS. (www.news-medical.net/) In a recent article posted by Nature, there is evidence the hypothalamus may aid in preventing these diseases by maintaining the neurological pathways the brain uses to communicate. (Cai, D) Failure of the hypothalamus to do this could result in premature onset of mental diseases, but further studies would need to be done in order to verify if this was indeed the case.

Neural Pathways in the Brain (Schultz, Thomas)

Both factors of the hypothalamus are vital for life in humans. A body that can maintain homeostasis throughout numerous conditions allows for longevity, and the neural maintenance allows for sanity and better mental capabilities in prolonged life. The latter role is primarily a factor in older age, though, making it less important for life in comparison to the former role the hypothalamus plays.

Assuming the hypothalamus is indeed important towards preventing mental disorders in humans, the function it provides by maintaining homeostasis is still more important for life. The brain may be vital for life, but the hypothalamus’ role in brain functionality would only come into play more specifically at an older age. The importance of homeostasis for life is vital from the first day of life. Without a stable internal system, the human body would not function properly and impede survival. Therefore, the hypothalamus preserves life better through the maintenance of homeostasis than the maintenance of neurons.

Sources

Cai, D. (2013). Hypothalamic programming of systemic ageing involving IKK-β, NF-κB and GnRH. Nature, 497(7448), 211-216.

Miron, V. E. (2013). M2 microglia and macrophages drive oligodendrocyte
differentiation during CNS remyelination. Nature Neuroscience, 16(9),1163-1355.

Neurodegeneration - What is Neurodegeneration?. (n.d.). THE MEDICAL NEWS | from News-Medical.Net - Latest Medical News and Research from Around the World. Retrieved September 30, 2013, from http://www.news-medical.net/health/Neurodegeneration-What-is-Neurodegeneration.aspx

Bailey, R. (n.d.). Hypothalamus. Biology. Retrieved September 30, 2013, from http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/p/Hypothalamus.htm

Hypothalamic dysfunction: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (n.d.). National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Retrieved September 30, 2013, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001202.htm

The Problems and Solutions associated with Modern Agriculture

Finding sufficient food complicates many humans and other organisms’ lives every day. Shortly, the food supply of the world could decline, and this idea raises the issue’s awareness and sparks people's interest. Scientists have attempted to synthesize plant’s biological processes to enhance agricultural systems, but they have not yet been able to fully understand them, nor captured their full efficiency. Though the nitrogen fixation process has become vital to agriculture and it’s ability to sustain the world’s population, the negative effects it has, including high energy consumption and detrimental environmental consequences, make it evident that a new system needs to be devised- one that must focus on utilizing alternative energy sources as well as adjusting global agricultural procedures as a whole.

Photo 1: An array of vegetables and fruits photographed by Enric Archivell, shared on Flickr and part of Creative Commons.

The amount of energy necessary to supply the entire process poses a problem in the current global agricultural system. Fossil fuels are necessary to provide energy for many stages of the system, from energy used “directly for tillage and crop management or through the application of energy-intensive inputs e.g. nitrogen fertilizer and pesticides…[as well as] energy in tractors, buildings and other infrastructure” (Woods). These cannot be simply cut back on, as it has become “necessary to support agriculture and food supplies…as developing agricultural producers invest in the infrastructure needed to increase yields and become competitive in the global food commodity markets” (Woods). When fossil fuels and energy usage first became a concern, processes including farming were intently measured to ensure efficiency and yield amount versus input amount. Many times, no problems arose due to the high energy yield and high utility of the crops, but more recent studies have found that, “over the full life cycle of a crop, particularly where energy-intensive drying and processing are required, in some cases more fossil energy can be used than is contained in the final product” (Woods).

Photo 2: A crop harvester photographed by the Scania Group shared through Flickr and part of the Creative Commons

It must be noted, however, that each crop and individual agricultural process’ energy amount and type  required varies, and comparing measurements proves complex since “each agricultural product has very different properties and uses, making comparisons using a single metric problematic” (Woods). Though difficult to directly parallel them, the system clearly requires a very large amount of energy, which can hopefully change in coming years because the global system may face substantial issues if the input continues to exceed the yield.

The negative environmental effects pose another issue that causes a need to reevaluate the intensive farming system. The greenhouses gases (abbreviated GHG) emitted in the farming process itself, especially through the synthesized biological processes necessary to the growing of crops, give off emissions that are harmful to the environment because they damage the ozone layer and lead to global warming and harmful rays being released into the earth’s atmosphere. The levels of greenhouses gases especially stand out in the nitrogen fixation process, performed agriculturally through the perfected Bosch-Haber Process. This process produces usable nitrogen synthetically, similar to the way plants fix nitrogen naturally. After the process was discovered, it has become more and more widespread and now accounts for around 1/3 of the world’s population’s food supply (Clark). However, as “global nitrogen fertilizer applications have increased more than sixfold over the past 40 years,…there has been considerable regional variation. The production of mineral and synthetic fertilizers, especially nitrogen using the Haber–Bosch Process, uses large amounts of fossil energy, mainly natural gas, releasing…[a lot of] carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year” (Woods). The process used to create fertilizers enhances crops’ quality, quantity, and speed of production so that more production can occur and therefore more people, worldwide, can be sustained. 

Photo 3: A clear sky above an agricultural piece of land photographed by Pat Dalton, shared on Flickr, and part of the Creative Commons.

Like energy input levels, detrimental emissions also prove difficult to measure and compare, as, “differences in farming techniques, levels of mechanization, scales of production and soil and weather conditions in different regions make it difficult to quantify total fossil energy use and to extrapolate data from one agricultural system to another” (Woods). Again similar to the energy levels, overall the system clearly gives off very high greenhouse gas levels that cause environmental damage, and therefore researches are working to find alternative systems that include lower negative effects to the atmosphere.

As each of these problems have arisen, people have done work to suggest a variety ways to tweak the agricultural system, so that production levels stay the same or even improve, but still take into account the energy levels and environmental effects. One simple idea proposed to address the nitrogen fixation-related issues suggests a reduction in fertilizers. However, “although fertilizer manufacture is energy-intensive, reducing fertilizer use has mixed effects…a very large reduction in N [nitrogen] application can cause sufficient yield loss that cultivation becomes the dominant energy demand and energy use per tonne increases again” (Woods). There are always drawbacks to a situation, but here it seems that the solution cannot be as simple as cutting back or disregarding the yield. After all, this is the global population’s food we’re talking about.

Biomass, an energy source that can often be used in substitute for Carbon and other nonrenewable energy sources, is often advocated as a resolution to the energy input problem. One author states that the answer lies in, “the growth of microalgae for biofuel production…[and] supplying external, synthetic nitrogen may produce significant reductions in net energy gains and also result in competition for fertilizer with food producers” (Peccia). In these systems, one often must start at the smallest production level to make a change that will affect the entire system, hopefully for the better. One author, Bouwman, takes the idea further, recommending a carbon tax, so that consumers would be encouraged to buy the cheaper, better (as far as energy levels and emissions go) option of biofuels. Many developers’ focus remain on the nitrogen fixation issue, and show determination to find a way for the system to run that is all-around superior for the betterment of the world’s system as a whole.

However, systems other than simply a very small but impactful energy type change can help solve the issues arising with energy levels and environmental problems. Simply changing the protocol for the use of the land can help address the complications. For example, “alternative methods of land preparation and crop establishment have been devised to reduce energy requirements and maintain good soil structure. These include minimum tillage (min-till), conservation tillage (no tillage or min-till) and direct drilling resulting in increased surface organic matter from previous crops residues” (Bouwman).

In addition to individual fields and farmers changing their techniques, the global system can change the regions and types of space used to spread out the practices, instead of condensing them into small areas. This would allow for more natural processes to be used, meaning less human synthesizing and unnatural sources would remain necessary. This idea, however, “requires global cooperation,” which, while idyllic, may be an unreasonable assumption due to the many conflicts in the world. World leader have fought over issues of food and subsistence for decades, and will continue to be an issue while still scarce, which, economically speaking, will be forever (Bouwman).

Photo 4: A representation of nitrogen energy used across the world, showing how concentrated it is and how spreading it out would be feasible and better for the emissions.

Through examining just a few researcher’s theories on how to improve the agricultural system, clearly there are numerous different tactics that have been suggested that each individual thinks can solve the problems presented. High energy consumption and negative environmental effects are not petty issues, and surely solutions will continue to be brought up and tweaked. Though not clear which road agriculture will take in the coming years, one author, Allouche, makes a point to remind people that subsistence is a holistic process, not solely focused on the scientific processes involved. Allouche explains that wars, power and gender relations, trade policies, and climate change are all a part of the the evolving system, and cannot be ignored in understanding the problems and crafting the solutions. In Nature, one writer even proposes that the resolution lies in synthesizing photosynthesis, something not discovered yet, but will come in the future. There is no evident, all-encompassing solution yet, but taking steps like using alternative energy sources and focusing on strategic land usage get the agricultural system on the right track to solve the issues like energy usage and environmental effects.


Works Cited

Allouche, J. (2011, January). The sustainability and resilience of global water and food systems: Political analysis of the interplay between security, resource scarcity, political systems and global trade . Science Direct. Retrieved September 18, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919210001272

Bouwman, A. F., van Grinsven, J. J., & Eickhout, B. (2010, January). Consequences of the cultivation of energy crops for the global nitrogen cycle. JSTOR. Retrieved September 18, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27797791

Peccia, J., Haznedaroglu, B., Gutierrez, J., & Zimmerman, J. (2013, March). Nitrogen supply is an important driver of sustainable microalgae biofuel production. Science Direct. Retrieved September 18, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016777991300022X

Woods, J., Williams, A., Hughes, J., Black, M., & Murphy, R. (2010, August 16). Energy and the food system . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . Retrieved September 18, 2013, from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2991.short

Clark, Jim. "The Haber Process for the manufacture of ammonia." Chemguide. N.p., 1 Apr. 2013. Web. 30 Sept. 2013. <http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html>.